Localization And Innovation

Metathesis And Word Order Inversion

by dchph

his study explores how Chinese borrowings were not merely inherited but actively reshaped within Vietnamese, producing forms that are distinctly "Vietnamized". Beyond predictable phonological correspondences, Vietnamese speakers reinterpreted, contracted, and recombined Chinese roots, generating new meanings and vernacular doublets. These processes reveal the creative agency of Vietnamese in shaping its lexicon, positioning the language as both recipient and innovator within the broader Sino‑Tibetan world.

As foreign loanwords entered Vietnamese, one of the most vital strategies for coining new terms was to "Vietnamize" them – a process known as Nôm hoá or Việt hoá. Many such words were absorbed both before and long after Vietnam's independence in 939 CE. Localization and innovation thus became the twin mechanisms by which Sinitic elements were naturalized, reshaped, and fully integrated into Vietnamese. Far from peripheral, these processes form the indispensable head and soul of a living speech.

This paper focuses on localization through metathesis and inversion of word order. Compounds such as xe cộ and giờ giấc illustrate the systematic yet creative reshaping of Chinese etyma within Vietnamese phonological and semantic frameworks. Situating these phenomena within broader paradigms of sound change, the study demonstrates how "Vietnamization" produced a layered lexicon that is both predictable and inventive.

I) Localization of borrowed roots

• Phonological adaptation: Chinese sounds reshaped to fit Vietnamese phonotactics.

• Semantic narrowing: Borrowed terms restricted to everyday senses.

• Kinship and hierarchy: Chinese kinship terms localized into Vietnamese familial vocabulary.

We frequently encounter correspondences between Chinese and Sino‑Vietnamese words, many of which appear in reverse order. Several factors account for this phenomenon: some pairings may have arisen through deliberate borrowing, others through preferred lexical choices that first circulated in literary usage. More fundamentally, however, these reversals reflect the period when Vietnamese diverged from Middle Chinese, adopting a syntactic pattern of [modified + modifier] in contrast to the Chinese order of [modifier + modified], as discussed elsewhere in this study.

As is well known, this pattern reflects a re‑arrangement of syntactic order in Vietnamese, where the modifier is typically placed after the modified element. The phenomenon is especially evident in synonymous disyllabic words, in which the two syllables may derive either from two distinct Chinese characters or from a single one. In the latter case, the original meaning can still be preserved if the older form remains intact and its sound has not been significantly altered through reduplication. 

II) Example of reduplication

The word thiêngliêng 'sacred' illustrates how reduplicated or doubled forms clarify meaning through internal modification. Such formations exemplify the creative strategies by which Vietnamese localized and innovated upon Chinese borrowings, producing expressions that resonate culturally and semantically beyond their original etyma.

For example, the word thiêngliêng 'sacred' illustrates how reduplicated or doubled forms clarify meaning through internal modification.

• thiêngliêng ← 'thiêng' 靈 líng (SV linh) + 'liêng' 靈 líng (SV linh)

  • M 靈 líng < MC lieŋ < OC re:ŋ

  • ¶ /l‑ ~ th‑/ alternation

  • Cf. 靈地 língdì: SV linhđịa 'sacred land' vs. VS đấtlành 'good earth'.

  • Here, the modifier liêng (a variant of linh) functionally answers the implicit question: 'thiêng' + what? → thiêngliêng. The doubling makes the meaning clearer, since the monosyllable 靈 líng (linh) on its own is semantically diffuse.

  • Similarly, in the doublet linhthiêng, the collective mental parsing is 'linh' + what? → linhthiêng. In this case, thiêng modifies linh, reinforcing and clarifying its meaning.

Other parallels:

• báilạy 'kowtow' [also váilạy] ← 'vái' 拜 bài (SV bái) + 'lạy' 拜 (SV bái)
• ¶ /b‑ ~ l‑, v‑/ alternation
• Functions analogously to thiêngliêng / linhthiêng.
  

III. Innovation and vernacular creativity

• Compound re‑analysis: hiếuthảo from 孝順 xiàoshùn, split into hiếu "filial" + thảo "devotion."

• Semantic expansion: Vernacular forms gain new meanings beyond their Chinese originals.

• Doublets: Learned Sino‑Vietnamese vs. vernacular Sinitic‑Vietnamese (e.g., trung vs. trúng).

In cases of phonological metathesis, the resulting forms are essentially reversals, often involving spoonerism or marrowsky‑type shifts, operating at both the phonological and morphemic levels.

(1) Word order reversals

Correspondences between Chinese and Sino‑Vietnamese often appear in reverse order. Some pairings arose through deliberate borrowing, others through preferred lexical choices circulating in literary usage. More fundamentally, these reversals reflect the period when Vietnamese diverged from Middle Chinese, adopting a syntactic pattern of [modified + modifier] in contrast to the Chinese [modifier + modified] order.

This re‑arrangement is especially evident in synonymous disyllabic words. The two syllables may derive from distinct Chinese characters or from a single one. In the latter case, the original meaning can still be preserved if the older form remains intact and its sound has not been significantly altered through reduplication.

Examples of phonological metathesis include:

• shuāituì 衰退 → suythoái 'degrade'
• tuìcí 推辭 → từchối 'decline'
• dăsuàn 打算 → toantính 'intend'
• yǒurăn 有染 → dandíu 'have an affair with'

• bảođảm ← 擔保 dànbăo (SV đảmbảo) 'guarantee'
• thừakế ← 繼承 jìchéng (SV kếthừa) 'inherit'
• tìnhyêu ← 愛情 àiqíng (SV áitình) 'love'
• ânái ← 愛恩 ài'ēn (SV áiân) 'in love'
• biệtly ← 離別 líbié (SV lybiệt) 'separate'
• đớnđau ← 痛疼 tòngténg (SV thốngđông) 'pain, suffering'
• sốkiếp ← 劫數 jiéshù (SV kiếpsố) 'karma, fate'
• đơngiản ← 簡單 jiǎndàn (SV giảnđơn) 'simple'
• sảnxuất ← 出產 chùchǎn (SV xuấtsản) 'produce'

In fact, when compared with their modern Mandarin equivalents, Sinitic‑Vietnamese loanwords often appear in reverse order:

• hẹnhò 'dating' ← 約會 yuèhuì (SV ướchội, also giving rise to ướchẹn) < huì + yuè
• tìnhyêu 'love' ← 愛情 àiqíng (SV áitình) < qíng + ài
• mongmuốn 'wish' ← 願望 yuànwàng (SV nguyệnvọng) < wàng + yuàn
• bảxàm 'nonsense' ← 三八 sānbā (SV tambát) < bā + sān
• văngtục 'swear' ← 俗話 súhuà (SV tụcthoại) < huà + sú
• đườngcái 'road' ← 街道 jièdào (SV cáiđại) < dào + jiè
• conđường 'route' ← 途徑 tújīng (SV đồkinh) < jīng + tú
• thônlàng 'village' ← 鄉村 xiāngcūn (SV hươngthôn) <  xiāng + cūn [also làngxóm]
• concái 'children' ← 孩子 háizi (SV hàitử) < zǐ + hái
• condao 'knife' ← 刀子 dāozi (SV đaotử) < zǐ + dāo
• khuônmặt 'face' ← 面孔 miànkǒng (SV diệnkhổng) < kǒng + miàn
• trườnghọc 'school'  ← 學堂 xuétáng (họcđường) < táng + xué
• hưhỏng 'broken' ← 'hư' 懷 huài (SV hoại) + 'hỏng' 懷 huài (SV hoại).
• hơisức 'strength' ← 力氣 lìqì (SV lựckhí)
• VS sứclực: 氣 qì ~ sức + 力 lì ~ lực [ Essentially 'sức' 力 lì (SV lực) + 'lực' 力 lì (SV lực) ]

(2) Syncopation and contraction

In combination with metathesis, some forms also involve syncopation and contraction:

• jiéjiě 姊姊 → chịgái 'older sister' [otherwise, the presence of gái 'female' would be unexplained; cf. emgái 'younger sister', emtrai 'younger brother']
• dìdì 弟弟 → emtrai 'younger brother' [cf. 兄弟 xiōngdì: VS anhtam 'brothers']
• āmèi 阿妹→ emgái → em 'sister' > 'young girl'
• mēimēi 妹妹 → emgái 'younger sister'

However, this pattern is not universal. In some cases, the boundary between modifier and modified is blurred, and certain disyllabic words retain the original Chinese order as first borrowed. Examples include:

• mùmắt 盲目 mángmù 'blind' [cf. extended mùquáng 'blindly']
• mắtkính 眼鏡 yănjìng 'eyeglasses' [also VS mắtkiếng; cf. Hainanese 目鏡 /mat7keŋ5/]
• căngthẳng 緊張 jǐnzhāng 'stressful'
• siêngnăng 勤勉 qínmiăn 'industrious'
• cảgan 大膽 dàdăn 'daring'
• cuốnghọng (~ cổhọng) 喉嚨 hóulóng 'throat'
• sạchsẽ 清潔 qīngjié 'clean'

III) Vietnamization as cultural agency

(1) Innovation and vernacular creativity

Other common linguistic phenomena in Vietnamese word coinage include combining ancient roots with modern words, extending the concepts of certain terms to others, syncopation, or the addition of new elements. These are forms of local innovation, much like the processes observed in other languages.

Examples:

• lịchsự 歷事 lìshì (VS 'polite')
• nhansắc 顏色 yánsè 'beauty'
• tửtế 仔細 zǐxì (VS 'kindness')
• thậmtệ 甚鄙 shènbì (VS 'scold despicably')
• lẽsống 理想 líxiăng 'ideal'
• bênhvực 包庇 bāobì (VS 'be on one's side')
• ănnhậu 應酬 yìngchóu (VS 'drink, socialize')
• hiệnnay 現在 xiànzài (VS 'at present')
• múarối 目偶戲 mù'ǒuqì (VS 'puppetry')
• dêxồm 淫蟲 yínchóng (VS '(quĩ)râuxanh', 'lecherous')
• bahoa 大話 dàhuà (VS 'boasting')
• hoatay 花手 huāshǒu (VS 'skillful')
• khéotay 巧手 qiáoshǒu (VS 'a dab hand')
• togan 大膽 dàdăn (VS 'daring')
• cảlũ 大伙 dàhuǒ (VS 'whole group')
• bắtcóc 綁架 băngjià (VS 'kidnap')
• trờinắng 太陽 tàiyáng (VS 'sunny')
• chồmhổm 犬坐 quánzuò (SV khuyểntoạ) 'squat'
• hiếuthảo 孝順 xiàoshùn (SV hiếuthuận) 'piety'
• suônsẻ 順利 shùnlì (SV thuậnlợi) 'smoothly, conveniently'
• hoàicông 費工 fèigōng (SV phícông) 'wasting time'
• chơigái 嫖妓 piāojī (VS 'patronize prostitutes')

Many other words have evolved and expanded their meanings beyond what was originally conveyed, especially when secondary meanings did not exist in the original loanwords. For example:

• caothấp 高低 gāodì (high + low = 'height') → 'rank in a competition'
• nặngnhẹ 輕重 qīngzhòng (light + heavy = 'weight') → 'reprimand'
• tonhỏ 大小 dàxiăo (large + small = 'size') → 'whisper in someone's ear'
• trêndưới 上下 shàngxià (above + below = 'position') → 'hierarchy in roles'
• xagần 遠近 yuănjìn (far + near = 'distance') → 'everywhere'

(2) Integration and combination

Some words combine both ancient and modern pronunciations, or blend Sinitic‑Vietnamese with Sino‑Vietnamese forms:

• xecộ (~ cỗxe) 車 chē 'carriage'

• Sino‑Vietnamese (SV): xa
  
• Vernacular (VS): xe
  
• Ancient reading: 居 (SV cư, VS cộ)
• Compound forms: xe + cộ / cỗ + xe
  
• Note: 車 chē is also pronounced jū when referring to a Chinese checker piece.

• giờgiấc 時間 shíjiān 'time'

• SV: thờigian

• thìgiờ 時晨 shíshén 'period of time'

• Also thờigiờ ← thì 時 shí + giờ 時 shí

• giờnày 今兒 jīnr 'now'

• Also giờđây

• sứclực 力氣 lìqì 'strength'

• 力 lì, SV: lực
  
• Compound: sức 力 lì + lực 力 lì

• sinhđẻ 生育 shēngyù 'reproduction'

• Cf. 生產 shēngchǎn: SV sanhsản
  
• 產 chǎn ~ sinh 生 shēng + đẻ 生 shēng
  
• Hainanese reflex: /te1/

• củacải 財產 cáichǎn 'property'

• 財 cái, SV: tài
  
• Compound: của 財 cái + cải 財 cái

(3) Permanent word formation with associated classifiers

Stable compounds formed as binoms with associated classifiers include: 

(một) giấcmơ (一)場夢 (yī) chăngmèng 'a dream'

• (một) bórau (cải) 一把菜 yī bă cài 'a bunch of vegetables'
  
• (một) đoáhoa 一朵花 yī duǒhuā 'a flower'
  
• (một) cănphòng 一間房子 yī jiān fángzi 'a room'

(4) Word formation through sandhi and assimilation

Word formation in Vietnamese often evolved from sandhi processes of assimilation, where one concept is associated with another morpheme:

• ănđòn 挨打 ăidă 'get punishment'
• ăntiền 贏錢 yínqián 'win a bet'
• ănnhậu 應酬 yìngchóu 'eat and drink'
• ănnăn 慇恨 yīnhèn 'remorse'
• bỏphí 白費 báifèi 'waste'
• bỏphiếu 投票 tóupiào 'cast a vote'
• bỏdấu 標調 biāodiào 'mark with a diacritic tone'
• chođến 直到 zhídào 'until'
• đếnnỗi 至於 zhìyú 'go so far as'
• hốihận 後悔 hòuhuǐ 'regret'
• làmlại 再來 zàilái 'do it again'
• muavé 買票 măipiào 'buy a ticket'

(5) Analogical word formation

If a Vietnamese word is derived from a Chinese source, its antonym is often drawn from the same source, forming disyllabic pairs:

• buồnvui 悲歡 bēihuān 'sorrow + joy = state of mind'
• caothấp 高低 gāodì 'high + low = height'
• nặngnhẹ 輕重 qīngzhòng 'light + heavy = weight'
• khóccười 哭笑 kùxiào 'cry + laugh = sentiment'
• dàingắn 長短 chángduăn 'long + short = length'
• gầymập 瘦肥 shòuféi 'skinny + fat = shape'
• tonhỏ 大小 dàxiăo 'large + small = size'
• trêndưới 上下 shàngxià 'above + below = position'
• sớmmuộn 早晚 zăowăn 'early + late = sooner or later'
• sốngchết 生死 shēngsǐ 'life + death = condition of existence'

(6) Sound clipping, omission, contraction, and syncope

In many cases, when sound omission affected the same disyllabic word in both languages, Chinese tended to retain the original monosyllabic form – the one that had existed before the development of a disyllabic equivalent – while Vietnamese often adopted the later developed sound as the main form. In other instances, the Vietnamese form was assimilated with another word, and either one was retained, for example:

• 耳朵 ěrduō → lỗtai 'ear' [duō for tai 'ear']
• 隱私 yǐnsī → riêngtư 'private' [yǐn for riêng 'personal']
• 黑暗 hēi'àn → tốităm 'darkness' [hēi for tối 'night']
• 應酬 yìngchóu → ănnhậu 'eat and drink' [nhậu from 酬 chóu 'drink wine'; ăn associated with 吃 chī 'eat']
• 喉嚨 hóulóng → cổhọng 'throat' [ hóu 'cổ' 'neck']
• 黃金 huángjīn → (kim)vàng 'gold' [huáng 'vàng' 'yellow/gold']
• 銅板 tóngbăn → đồngbạc 'monetary unit' [tóng 'đồng' ($); 'bạc' influenced by 白銀 báiyín 'white silver'; đồngbạc further associated with 錢幣 qiánbì (SV tiềntệ) and VS tiềnbạc 'currency']

(7) Influence from other Chinese dialects

Chinese characters are pronounced differently across dialects, often to the point of mutual unintelligibility. Even within a single dialect, subdialectal variation is common  –  a situation paralleled in Vietnamese (northern, central, southern). Many characters thus developed multiple Vietnamese reflexes, reflecting their introduction through different dialectal channels at different times. Examples include:

• Beijing: 啥 shá → VS gì, sao 'what, how'
• Taiwanese: 早 zăo → VS chào, sớm 'hello'
• Fukienese: /bat7/ → VS 'know'
• Hainanese: [gai2mi5] → VS cáigì 'what'
• Shanghainese: 垃圾 [lᴀ2ɕi4] → VS rácrưới 'garbage'

Other dialectal features also left their imprint on Vietnamese. For example:

• The Vietnamese second tone (equivalent to Chinese shǎngshēng 上聲 'rising tone') often occurs at a lower register, as in õ. This resembles nasalized final vowels in Fukienese or Chaozhou: /ẽ/, /ã/, /ĩ/, etc.

• The Beijing dialect suffix ‑er 兒 is echoed in Vietnamese forms:

• 明兒 míngr [mĩə] → VS mai 'tomorrow'
• 娘兒 niángr [njãə] → VS nạ 'mom'

• Teochew nasalization:

• 羊 yáng [jẽ] → VS dê 'sheep'
• 餠 bǐng [pjẽ] → VS bía 'cake'

• Hokkien:

• 囝 jiăn [kjã] → VS con 'son'
• [swã] → VS soài 'mango' [plausibly cognate with 檨 shé 'mango']

(8) Tonal and dialectal influence

Tonal correspondences also reveal dialectal influence. For instance, the tonal system of Hunan Mandarin (as spoken by Mao Zedong) recalls the Huế dialect of Vietnamese. Similarly, nasalized phonetic patterns in Minnan subdialects parallel Vietnamese nasalized finals.

In this study, Mandarin is selected to represent modern Chinese not merely for convenience but because it provides a useful basis for comparative analysis. Examining how sound changes from a common source diverged in Mandarin and Vietnamese helps clarify historical developments. This does not imply that Vietnamese words originated solely from Mandarin; many also derive from other Chinese dialects. Still, there is strong evidence that modern Vietnamese shares striking similarities with Mandarin, particularly with vernacular northern subdialects (including those spoken in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hunan, etc.), as well as with the Baihua 白話 style of northern dialects used in the Six Great Classical Novels.

Examples include:

• 這 zhèi 'this, here' → đây, nầy, ni
• 那 nà, nèi 'that, there' → đấy, đó, nớ
• 早 zăo 'hello' → chào
• 膝蓋 xīgài 'knee' → đầugối
• 所以 suóyǐ 'therefore' → chonên
• 於是 yúshì 'as a result' → vìthế
• 陌生 mòshēng 'unfamiliar' → lạlùng
• 生氣 shēngqì 'angry' → tứcgiận
• 馬上 măshàng 'immediately' → mauchóng
• 起碼 qǐmă 'at least' → ítra
• 體諒 tǐliàng 'pardon' → thalỗi
• 見諒 jiànliàng 'sorry' → xinlỗi
• 見過 jiànguò 'greet' → chàohỏ
• 體會 tǐhuì 'understanding' → thấuhiểu

These forms often appear as "twisted sounds" of Mandarin, shaped by colloquial association and performance.

(9) Literary comprehension and historical layers

Interestingly, average Vietnamese speakers often find it harder to understand 17th‑century Vietnamese literary works than to read the Six Great Chinese Classical Novels (12th century onward). Learners of Chinese descent in Vietnam could read and translate those novels with relative ease. It is said that a Vietnamese reader who recognizes 3,000 basic Chinese characters can enjoy Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms, since many compounds in both languages are built from the same single characters.

(10) Southern dialectal parallels

Certain southern Chinese dialects also preserve sounds that resemble Vietnamese forms:

• 芒果 mángguǒ 'mango' → Fukienese /swã/ → VS soài (cf. 檨 shé)
• 舌 shě 'tongue' ~ Cant. /lei2/ → VS lưỡi [cf. 脷 lěi (VS lợi)]
• 囝 jiān 'child' → Fukienese [kẽ], Hainanese [ke1] → VS con
• 羊 yáng 'sheep' → Chaozhou [jẽ] → VS dê
• 耕 gēng 'plow' → Chaozhou [kẽ] → VS cày
• 'know' → Hainanese /bat7/, Fukienese /paiʔ/, Amoy /bat/ → VS biết
• 生 shēng 'give birth' → Hainanese /te1/ → VS đẻ
• 屙 ē 'to poop' → Cant. /o5/ → VS ỉa [cf. VS ốm 'ill']
• 屌 diào 'curse' → Cant. /tjew3/ → VS đéo

These examples reflect the lowest stratum of Vietnamese, where words of shared Yue (Austroasiatic) roots remain in use. Some are direct isoglossal borrowings; others are parallel results of sound change.

(11) Additional cognates in daily vocabulary

• thấy ← 睇 dì (Cant. /tej3/) 'see'
• đụng ← 碰 pèng 'touch'
• bàntay ← 手板 shǒubăn 'palm' ('table of the hand')
• bànchân ← 腳板 jiăobăn 'sole of the foot'
• mò (~ sờ, sờmó) ← 摸 mó 'feel by hand'
• chạy ← 走 zǒu 'run' [also đi 'walk'; cf. 去 qù 'go']
• dù ← 要 yào ['if'; cf. 若 ruò 'if']
• đừng ← 甭 péng (Beijing) 'not to'
• mai ← 明兒 mínr (Beijing) 'tomorrow'
• nay ← 今兒 jīnr (Beijing) 'now'
• luônluôn ← 老老 láoláo (Beijing) 'always'
• gàtrống ← 雞公 /koi1kong1/ (Hainanese, Fukienese, ancient Cant.) 'rooster'
• gàmái ← 雞母 /koi1mai2/ (Hainanese, Fukienese, ancient Cant.) 'hen'
• cùlét (Hainanese /ka2lɛt7/) = thọclét, chọccười ← 逗笑 dòuxiào 'tickle'

Such examples are numerous and deserve detailed, line‑by‑line analysis rather than simple listings.

(12) Methodological notes: In the modern era, linguists equipped with database tools can tabulate raw data and gain advantages over traditional methods. Vietnamese historical phonology requires mastery of multiple layers of sound change, from Old Chinese to modern Chinese and Vietnamese.

It remains controversial whether words so heavily influenced by Chinese should be used to establish kinship. Some argue that only "basic words" count, excluding obvious loanwords, grammar, and phonology. Yet many of these so‑called basic words are in fact cognate with Sino‑Tibetan etyma (see Vietnamese Parallels With the Sino-Tibetan Languages).

As Nguyễn Ngọc San (1993) observed, modern Vietnamese evolved from the foundation laid 1,000 years ago, when Hán‑Việt (SV) pronunciation emerged from Middle Chinese. Classical Chinese literary forms, court speech, and vernacular registers all contributed, entering Vietnamese at different times. This phenomenon was noted by Haudricourt (1961), Starostin, Wang Li, Nguyễn Tài‑Cẩn, and others.

Cao Xuân Hạo (2001) further argued that there are no "pure Vietnamese words," since even Viet‑Muong and Mon‑Khmer elements coexist with overwhelming Chinese influence. If Chinese elements are excluded, what remains as the "core" of Vietnamese? Lexically, more than 90% of the vocabulary shows Chinese origin, though this figure is an estimate based on dictionary sampling rather than frequency counts. Regardless of the exact percentage, the evidence demonstrates that Vietnamese is fundamentally Sinitic‑Vietnamese in character.

From a lexicographic perspective, with sufficiently complete and verifiable listings, and with solid grammatical and phonological rules aligned with Sino‑Tibetan and Han etymologies, it is possible to envision the eventual compilation of the first truly comprehensive Vietnamese dictionary.

Conclusion:

Wrap up by emphasizing the independence of Vietnamese innovation:

• Borrowed roots were not passively received but actively localized.

• Vietnamese demonstrates how sound change and semantic creativity converge to produce a uniquely "Vietnamized" lexicon.

• The study of these processes highlights both universal principles of sound change and the cultural ingenuity of Vietnamese speakers.

Localization and innovation reveal that Vietnamese etymology is not a mere reflection of Chinese phonology but a dynamic process of adaptation. By reshaping borrowed roots into vernacular forms, Vietnamese created a layered lexicon that is at once systematic and inventive. To speak of "Vietnamization" is to recognize the creative agency of a language that transformed external influence into internal identity.

References

• Alves, M. J. (2008). Sino‑Vietnamese grammatical vocabulary and sociolinguistic conditions for borrowing. Australian National University. Retrieved from https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au

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