Sinitic-Vietnamese : Chapter 13 – Case Study Worksheets

Executive Summary:

Case Study Worksheets

Conclusion

This research reframes Vietnamese historical linguistics by challenging entrenched assumptions and offering a new methodological foundation. Five central contributions emerge:

Recognition of a Yue substratum predating Chinese.
Critique of nationalist and political bias in past scholarship.
Reclassification of many “basic” words as Sino‑Tibetan rather than Mon‑Khmer.
Assertion of dissyllabicity in both Vietnamese and Chinese.
Introduction of an analogical method using syllabic pairings to uncover Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary.

Overall, the study positions Vietnamese as a layered language shaped by Yue roots, Sinitic borrowings, and regional admixtures. By emphasizing polysyllabicity and analogical analysis, it provides a framework for renewed research momentum and points toward the eventual compilation of a comprehensive Vietnamese dictionary that systematically incorporates Chinese etymologies.

x X x

We will be working with a series of case study worksheets, each designed as a practical tool for brainstorming and testing whether particular Vietnamese words may be candidates of Chinese origin. When the author approaches such problems, he often visualizes them graphically, mapping possible connections between Vietnamese forms and their Chinese counterparts. For beginners, who may still feel overwhelmed by abstract concepts such as disyllabicity or etymological analogy, these worksheets provide something concrete to work with after the theoretical discussions and hypotheses presented earlier.

The overall purpose of the worksheets is to give you a pen‑and‑paper method for identifying additional Vietnamese words of potential Chinese origin, beyond those already recognized as plausible cognates. By using a tabular format, you can experiment with possible sound changes, especially those involving disyllabic formations, association, and assimilation. What follows are guidelines for how to use each worksheet as a complement to the approaches discussed previously.

I) Case Study Worksheet

Worksheet 1: Getting Started

Worksheet 1 is simply one organized way to apply the disyllabic and analogical methods on paper. Ideally, you should print it out and work with hard copies. Remember, these worksheets are brainstorming tools rather than rigid frameworks – you are encouraged to add your own observations and adapt them to your ongoing etymological work. With practice, the process will become second nature, and you may find yourself working out patterns mentally without needing the worksheet.

Column 1: Candidate Words Begin by examining the provided examples, then use the blank rows to record Vietnamese words that might be of Chinese origin. Separate them into monosyllabic (đơnâmtiết) and disyllabic (songâmtiết) sub‑columns. For each monosyllabic Vietnamese word it has many homonyms, which can spark further exploration.

Column 2: Sandhi (Chuyểnâm) This column is divided into “association” (liêntưởng) and “assimilation” (đồnghoá). Here, ask yourself: Why is the word pronounced this way and not another? What variations exist? Could its form be explained by assimilation, analogy, or local innovation? This step helps you consider how a word’s vocalization may have shifted over time.

Column 3: Analogy (Sosánh) Classify the word into categorical groups (thểloại), then apply the principle of corollary (quynạp). Identify which words belong together and use analogy to generate further leads. This may reveal additional Vietnamese words that correspond to multiple Chinese equivalents, not just one.

Column 4: Local Development (Chữmới) Some words may be products of local innovation (Việthoá). In such cases, Chinese traces may have disappeared entirely. In the "sound changes" (biếnâm) sub‑column, note that systematic correspondences may not apply, since these words no longer follow the predictable phonological rules of Sino‑Vietnamese.

Column 5: Possible Sources/Forms (Nhậndạng chữgốc / từpháisinh) Keep in mind that a Vietnamese word may derive from more than one Chinese source. Do not assume a single character must map directly to a single Vietnamese form – never ever. Use the "Word‑character" (tự / tiếng) and "Word" (từ) sub‑columns to record multiple possible origins, especially when disyllabic formations are involved.

Final Note – Try to fill in as many blanks as possible, but don’t worry if some remain empty. Leave them for later review – often, new insights emerge when you revisit the worksheet after further study. The goal is not perfection but exploration: by systematically recording possibilities, you create a working map of sound changes and potential cognates that can be refined over time.

Case Study Worksheet 1

(1) Candidates		(2) Sandhi		(3) Analogy		(4) Local development		(5) Possible sources/forms
Mono- syllabic	Dis- syllabic	Asso- ciation	Assim- ilation	Cate- gorical	Coro- llary	Sound changes	Inno- vation	Word- character	Word
肥 féi (SV phì) 'fat', 肉 ròu (SV nhục) 'meat'	barọi 肥肉 féiròu (bacon)	ba 肥 féi ~ 巴 ba, 肉 ròu ~ 'rọi'	肥 féi (phonetic: ba 巴 bā for 三 sān 'three')	肉 ròu (meat) ~ 'rọi', a deviate of 'ruốc' (N. Viet. for 'pork')	肥 féi (fat) ~ ba, 肉 ròu (meat) ~ 'rọi'	f- ~ b-, r- ~ r-	肉 ròu ~ 'rọi'	肥 féi ~'ba' + 肉 ròu ~ 'rọi'	barọi 肥肉 féiròu (bacon)
chả 炸 zhà (SV tạc), lụa 肉 ròu (SV nhục) 'meat'	chảlụa 炸肉 zhàròu	炸 zhà (fried) ~ chả 紮 zhà, 肉 ròu ~ 'lụa' 綢 chóu	炸 zhà ~ chả	肉 ròu (meat) ~ 'lụa'	炸 zhà (fried) ~ chả, 肉 ròu (meat) ~ 'lụa'	zh- ~ ch-, r- ~ l-	肉 ròu ~ lụa'	炸 zhà ~'chả' + 肉 ròu ~ 'lụa''	chảlụa 炸肉 zhàròu (fried meat, steamed ham)
siêng 'hard-' 勤 qín + '-working' 勉 miăn ~ 'năng'	siêngnăng 勤勉 qínmiăn (SV cầnmiễn) 'hard-working'	勤 qín ~ 'siêng' (hard-working, 勉 miăn ~ 'năng' 能 néng (ability)	@ 勤 qín + 能 néng	làm: 幹 gàn, 弄 nòng...	cf. 'làmsiêng' @# 勤勞 qínláo (SV 'cầnlao', hard-working), 'làmlụng' @ 勞動 láodòng (labor)	q- ~ s-, or m- ~ n-,	勤力 qínlì (SV cầnlực) > 'gắngsức', 'gắnglàm' \ @ 力 lì ~ 'làm'	勞 láo + 勤 qín ~ 'làm + siêng'	勤勞 qínláo (SVcầnlao) 'làmsiêng' (hard-working)
要 yào (SV yêu) 'fat', 飯 fàn (SV phạn) 'rice'	ănmày 要飯 yàofàn (beggar)	要 yào ~ 'ăn' 唵 ān, 飯 fàn ~ 'mày'	要 yào ~ ăn [ cf. 要錢 yàoqián (ăntiền) 'taking bride']	Hainanese 飯 /muj2/	要 yào ~ 'ăn', 飯 fàn ~ 'mày'	Ø- ~ ă, f- ~ m-	飯 fàn ~ 'mày'	要 yào ~ 'ăn' 唵 ān (association), 飯 fàn ~ 'mày' (phonetic)	ănmày 要飯 yàofàn (beggar)
mực 幅 fú (bức) 'degree, amplitude'	mứcđộ, mựcđộ 幅度 fúdù (bứcđộ)	mực 幅 fú ~ 率 lǜ (suất) (~> 'mực', mức')	幅 fú ~ bức ~ bực ~ mực ~ mức	度 dù (degree)	'độbự' ~> 'bựcđộ' ~> 'mứcđộ' ~> 'mựcđộ'	f- ~ m-, b- ~ m-	幅 fú ~ 'mức' for 率 lǜ (suất)	幅 fú ~ 'mực' + 度 dù ~ 'độ'	mứcđộ (mựcđộ) 幅度 fúdù (bứcđộ)
sòng 等 děng (đẳng) 'class'	sòngphẳng 平等 píngděng (bìnhđẳng)	等 děng ~> 'đẳng' (~> 'sẳng' ) ~> 'sòng'	平 píng ~ 'bằng' (equal) ~> 'phẳng' (level)	等 děng ~ 'hạng' (class)	平 píng ~ 'bằng' (equal) ~> 'phẳng' (level)	d-(t-) ~ s-	等 děng ~> 'sòng'	等 děng ~ 'sòng' + 平 píng ~ 'phẳng'	sòngphẳng 平等 píngděng 'equal footing'
bần 混 hún (hỗn) 'mix'	xàbần 雜混 záhún (tạphỗn)	雜拌 zábàn (tạpbạn)	拌 bàn (bạn) 'bần'	混 hún (hỗn) ~ 拌 bàn (bạn) ~> 'bần'	'xàbần' 雜混 záhún ~ 雜拌 zábàn	hw- ~ b-	雜混 záhún (tạphỗn) ~> 'tràtrộn' ~> 'xàbần'	雜 zá ~ 'xà' + 混 hún 'bần'	'xàbần' 雜混 záhún ~ 雜拌 zábàn ('mixed dried fruits or sweetmeats', 'hotchpotch.' Also: 'admixture')
Mono- syllabic	Dis- syllabic	Asso- ciation	Assim- ilation	Cate-gorical	Coro- llary	Sound changes	Inno-vation	Word- character	Word
mùi 毛 máo (SV mao) 'fiber', tơi 棕 (椶) zōng (SV tông) 'palm leaf'	mùitơi 棕毛 zōngmáo (tôngmao) 'palm fiber, coir'	棕 (椶) zōng ~ 'tơi', 毛 máo, mù ~ 'mùi'	棕毛 zōngmáo 'mùitơi' ~> 'mồngtơi'	mùi 毛 máo, mù (mao) ~> 'mùi' ~> 'mồng'	mùitơi, mồngtơi 棕毛 zōngmáo	z- ~ t-, -ong ~ -oj, -aw ~ uj, -ong	棕毛 zōngmáo 'mùitơi' ~> 'mồngtơi'	毛 máo 'mùi' +棕 zōng 'tơi'	ex. 窮掉棕毛 qióngdiàozōngmáo 'nghèorớtmùitơi' (extremely impoverished)
sát 隔 gé (SV cách), vách 壁 bì (SV bích)	sátvách 隔壁 gébì (cáchbích)	Beijing: 隔 gé ~ /jié/ ~> 'sát' 切 qiè	隔壁 gébì ~ 隔壁 (Beijing) jiébì	cách 隔 gé ~ 'sát' 切 qiè	cáchvách, sátvách 隔壁 gébì	g- ~ j-, s-, b- ~ v-	'jié' is another sound pro-nounced by Beijingers	'sát' 切 qiè (next to) + vách 壁 bì (wall)	sátvách 隔壁 gébì (SV cávhbích) 'next door'
mai 明 míng (SV minh) 'tomorrow'	ngàymai 明日 míngrì (minhnhật)	Beijing: 明ㄦ míngr (VS mai ~ mơi)	明日 míngrì ~ 明天 míngtiān	ngày: 日 rì ~ 天 tiān	ngàymai, ngàymơi, mainầy 明天 míngtiān	r- ~ ng-, n-, t- ~ đ-	'mai' contract- ion of míngr 明ㄦ (SV minhnhi), 'nầy' 日 rì ~ 'đây' 天 tiān	ngày 日 rì + mai 明 míng, nầy, đây 天 tian	'ngàymai' 明天 míngtiān (tomorrow) ~> 'mainầy', 'maiđây'
sức 力 lì (SV lực) 'strength'	gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì (SV tậnlực) 'try hard'	cốsức 努力 nǔlì (SV nỗlực) 'try hard'	rasức 出力 chùlì 'try one's best'	sứclực 力 lì (sức+lực) 'strength'	cốgắng (cốsức 努力 nǔlì+gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì) 'work hard'	j- ~ g-, l- ~ s-, n- ~ k-	ránsức 盡力 jìnlì	僅 jǐn (SV cần) gắng 'hard-working'	gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì 'try hard'
trêu 逗 dòu 'tease'	đùagiỡn 'play'	chơigiỡn, giỡnchơi 'play'	dòu 逗 chọc 'tease'	dòuwán 逗玩 chọcghẹo	trêughẹo 'tease'	d- ~ tr-, ch-, d- ~ đ-, w- ~ b-, gi-, gh-	đùadai, đùabỡn (> bông\đùa) 'play a trick on'	逗 dòu ~ 'đùa'	bôngđùa 逗玩 dòuwán 'to joke'
Mono- syllabic	Dis- syllabic	Asso- ciation	Assim-ilation	Cate- gorical	Corollary	Sound changes	Inno-vation	Word- character	Word
chợ 市 shì 'market'	chợbúa	phốchợ 'market- place'	市 shì ~ 舖 pǔ 'market and shop'	舖 pǔ 'shop'	phốchợ < chợphố	sh- ~ ch-, p- ~ ph-, b-	'chợbúa', cf. 斧 fǔ ~ 'búa' (hammer), 婦 fù ~ 'bụa' (wife), 佛 fó ~ 'bụt' (Buddha)	市 shì ~ 'chợ'	市舖 shìpǔ 'chợbúa' (marketplace)
uống 飲 yǐn 'drink' (SV ẩm, Cant. /jəm3/ )	ănuống	modern M 吃喝 chīhè 'eating and drinking'	食 shí (xơi 'eat', /shjət/ Cant.) ~ 吃 chì (VS ăn 唵 ān 'eat', cf. SV ngật < 乙 ất)	飲食 yǐnshí 'food and drink' ~ 吃喝 chīhè 'to eat and todrink')	食 shí (xơi 'eat') ~ 吃 chī (xơi), 唵 ān (ăn)	Ø- ~ w-, ng- ~ a-	ẩmthực ~ ănuống	uống 飲 yǐn (/jəm/ Cant./)	飲食 yǐnshí 'ănuống' (eating) ~ 吃喝 chīhè (eating)
chầu 朝 cháo (attend)	chầuchực (wait on)	朝 cháo chầu (attend to the King)	俟候 sìhòu 'chờchực' (attend) ~ 期待 qídài 'chờđợi' (wait)	候 hòu 'hầu' (serve)	候 hòu 'hầu' (serve) > 'chầu' (attend)	s- ~ ch-, h- ~ ch-	'chờ' > 'chực', 'hầu' > 'chầu' => 'chầuchực' => 'chờchực'	候 hòu 'hầu' (serve)	俟候 sìhòu 'chờchực' (wait on, serve)
順 shùn 'luôn' (conveniently)	luônthể 順手 shùnshǒu (conve-niently)	suônsẻ 順利 shùnlì	luôntiện 順便 shùnbiàn	nhântiện 順便 shùnbiàn 'sẵntiện'	sẵntay 順手 shùnshǒu ~ 'luônthể' > 'nhânthể ' (conve-niently)	sh- ~ l-, l- ~ s-, s- ~ th-	suônsẻ, sẵnthể, luônthể, nhânthể	順 shùn (SV thuận) ~ 'xuôi' (follow)	順手 shùnshǒu (conveniently), 'luônthể' (> 'chótlọt' ~ 'trótlọt')
đái 尿 niào (urinate)	điđái 拉尿 làniào ~ 尿尿 niàoniào	拉 là > đi	ỉa 屙 è (Mand.) SV 'ố' (to shit), 屙屎 /o5xi3/ (Cant.) ~> điỉa 拉屎 làshǐ (to shit) > tiểu, đái, điđái 拉尿 làniào (unrinate)	尿道 niàodào (SV niệuđạo) > # đườngtiểu (urethra)	尿 niào (SV niệu) > tiểu (urine)	l- ~ đ-, n- ~ t-, đ-	đitiểu > điđái	tiểu, đái 尿 niào (urinate)	đitiểu, điđái 拉尿 làniào
Mono- syllabic	Dis- syllabic	Asso- ciation	Assim- ilation	Cate-gorical	Coro- llary	Sound changes	Inno- vation	Word- character	Word
Suggested: try 'baylượn' 飛翔 fēixiáng (flying)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'búnthang' 湯粉 tāngfěn (broth noodles)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'lạnhgiá' 淒涼 qiēliáng (freezing)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'rétmướt' 淒冽 qīliè (chilly)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'chếtyểu' 夭折 yāozhé (die young)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'lắngnghe' 聆聽 língtìng (listen carefully)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'thảthính' 打聽 dătìng (inquire)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'sẵnsàng' (làmsẵn) 現成 xiànchéng (ready, prepared)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'mẹvợ' 岳母 yuèmǔ (mother-in-law)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'bốvợ' 岳父 yuèfù (father-in-law)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'conrể' 姑爺 gūyě (son-in-law)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'dâu' 媳婦 xífù (bride)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'sắpsửa' 行將 xíngjiāng (be about to)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Suggested: try 'thờcúng' 祀供 sìgòng ~ 上供 shànggòng (sacrificial worship)	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Alternatively, you can also tabulate your findings in a table like applying a function f(x,y,z), mathematically, as in arrays.

Using tabulation as a method

Think of it like a function. You can organize your findings in a table, much as you would apply a mathematical function f(x, y, z) across an array. This helps you see patterns systematically rather than only intuitively.
Recall the metaphor. In Section D we spoke of the monosyllabic tree and its dissyllabic leaves. A stem‑and‑leaf style plot is a useful way to visualize this relationship: the “stem” represents the etymological root, while the “leaves” represent the disyllabic forms that have grown from it.
Group related words. Use the table to cluster disyllabic words that appear to share the same stem. This makes it easier to trace how a single root may have branched into multiple Vietnamese forms.
Look for hidden elements. By tabulating in this way, you gain a concrete overview of how previously unrecognized elements can be derived from disyllabic words of possible Chinese origin. For example:
- bóhoa ('a bunch of flowers')
- hoatay ('a dab hand')
Treat it as exploratory. Remember, this is not about rigid rules but about generating leads. The table is a tool for brainstorming, helping you see connections that might otherwise remain hidden.

Case Study Worksheet 2

stem (etymology)*	leaves (variations)*
hoa (花 huā)	#đoá 朵duǒ, #bó 把 bă, #vòng 圈 quān, #xe 車 chē, tay 手 shǒu, # khéotay 巧手 qiáoshǒu (hoatay, 'a dab hand' \ 巧 = 'hoa'),
chả (炸 zhà)	cá 魚 yú, lụa ~ giò 肉 ròu, ram 煎 jiān
mắm (鹹 xián)	ruốc ~ tôm (tép) 蝦 xiā, riêu 蟹 xié (~ghẹ), cá (~mặn)
dưa (瓜 guā)	#hấu 塊 kuài, #tây 西 xī, #dây 葛
ban (白 bái)	ngày 日 rì, trưa 晝 zhòu, #ăn 吃 chī as in 'ănbám' (白吃 báichī \ 白 = 'bám')
trăng (月 yuè)	khuyết 虧 kuī, rằm 盈 yíng, #vầng 暈 yùn, sáng 亮 liàng (~#blăng?)
tay (手 shǒu)	#bàn 板 băn, chân 腳 jiăo, #ra 出 chù, #sẵn 順 shùn, hoa 花 huā, khéo 巧 qiáo
nhỏ (小 xiăo)	bé 微 wēi, #cô 姑 gū, #cậu 舅 jìu
lòng (心 xīn)	nhọc 操 cāo, #đau 痛 tòng, #lót 點 diăn, #tấm 坎 kán, #buồn 悶 mèn, #cõi 境 jǐng
cả (大 dà)	gan 膽 dăn (~ @ 肝 gān), #anh 兄 xiōng, #bể 海 hăi, lũ 伙 huǒ,
thợ (匠 jiāng)	mộc 木 mù, nề ® 泥水 níshuǐ, sắt 鐵 tiě (~thiết), khoá 鎖 suǒ, ngói 瓦 wă
bể <~ biển (海 hăi ~> 'khơi')	#cả 大 dà, #sóng 浪 làng, cửa 口 kǒu, #cướp 窛 kòu (~賊 zéi), ra 出 chū, #ngoài 外 wài
--	--
--	--
--	--
--	--

*For etymology of these words, refer back to previous sections
or search http://han-viet.com.

For this specific table, you are going to study and identify what language it is for each row of listed items (hint: the header abbreviation by a single alphabet).

Case Study Worksheet 3 - Basic words in Vietnamese and other regional Asian languages

Lang-uage	Two	Three	Bird	Eye	Give	Blood	Water	Stone	Name	Snow	Who	Say
A	njidh	səm	ghjəm	mjəkʷ	kjəp	maŋ	tujʔ	khiagw	ɕiŋ⁵¹	snhot	duj	ghwra:ts
B	nhait	sone	nghaat	myetlone	payy	shaayy	ray	kyaww kya	nar m tyaww ko	moe pw ng	a bhaalsuu sai	pwayar so
C	ˀɑɻ⁵¹	san⁵⁵	ʨin⁵	mu⁵¹	ʨj²¹⁴	huaŋ⁵	świ²¹⁴	tan⁵¹	seŋs	ɕɥ̯œ²¹⁴	świ⁵	xu̯a⁵¹
D	du	se	sae	nun	jugi	pi	mul	dol	seong	nun	nugu	malhada
F	dalawang	tatlo	ibon	mata	magbigay ng	dugo	tubig	bato	pangalan	snow	sino	sinasabi
G	jiː²²	saːm⁵⁵	kam⁴⁴	mʊk̚²	kap⁴⁴	fong¹¹	sɵy³⁵	taːm³³	sɛːŋ³³	syːt̚³	sɵy²¹	waː³⁵
H	ob	peb	noog	qhov muag	muab	ntshav	dej	pob zeb	lub npe	daus	uas	hais
I	dua	tiga	burung	mata	memberikan	darah	air	batu	nama	salju	siapa	mengataka
J	ni	san	tori	me	ataeru	etsueki	mizu	ishi	furunēmu	yuki	dare	Iu
K	pir	bei	baksaei	phnek	phtal aoy	chheam	tuk	dom th	chhmoh	pril	del	niyeay
L	song	sam	nok sanid	ta	hai	leuod	noa	hin	su	hima	thi	vao
M	dua	tiga	burung	mata	memberi	darah	negara	batu	nama	salji	yang	berkata
S	Ssxng	s̄ām	nk	tā	H̄ı̂	leụ̄xd	pratheṣ̄	f̄in	chụ̄̀x	f̄ima	khır	phūd
T	ñii	sum	bya	mig	sbyin	ƫhaa	ćhū	to	miŋ	qhań	sū	smra
V	haːj˧	ɓaː˧	ʨim˧	mat˥	ʨɔ˧	maw˥	nɨək˥	ɗaː˥	ten˧	twiət˥	aːj˧	nɔj˥
X	jī	saⁿ		ba̍k			chuí		sèⁿ	seh	chuí	hoā

Worksheet 4

List of the 23 identified fundamental basic words for which we could plug in all Vietnamese and Chinese cognates into place without much difficulty. Let's work on this for worksheet, and try if you will to see what the AA MK camp will come up with.

23 basic words in Vietnamese and other regional Asian languages

Basic words	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	V
ye
worm
who
what
we
thou
this
that
spit
pull
old
not
mother
man/male
hear
give
flow
fire
bark
ashes
I

Source: "Ancient Languages Have Words in Common"by Zachary Stieber, Epoch Times (May 6, 2013)

Case Study Worksheet 5 – Fill in the missing Chinese etyma

Interchanges	Chinese (?)
trời ~ giời
trầu ~ giầu
trăng ~ giăng
trùn ~ giun
trôn ~ lồn
trũng ~ lũng
dăn ~ nhăn
dơ ~ nhơ
dồi ~ nhồi
dức ~ nhức
cha ~ già
chi ~ gì
chói ~ giọi
chuỳ ~ giùi
chừ ~ giờ
chủng ~ giống
chẻ ~ xẻ, xé
chiên ~ xiên
chòm ~ xóm
chen ~ xen
chếch ~ xếch
chao ~ xào
đã(cơn) ~ dã(cơn)
đứt ~ dứt
đao ~ dao
đập ~ dập
đình ~ dừng
đướn ~ dưới
đạy(học) ~ dạy(học)
đun(đẩy) ~ dun(dẩy)
(chỉnh)đốn ~ dọn(dẹp)
(cây)đa ~ (cây)da

In addition to the 5 worksheets above, you can query corresponding words with the dictionary of Vietnamese etymology and fill in the blank in the last column of vocabulary table prepared by Mark Alves at http://world.livingsources.org/vocabulary/24. By the way, never mind about those redundant Sino-Vietnamese lists, e.g., 'thếgiới' 世界 shìjiè, 'lụcđịa' 陆地 lùdì, etc., which should not be included in the table because there are thousands more of similar words like those in the Vietnamese language and they are affirmatively Sino-Vietnamese words of Middle Chinese origin. What we are trying to do here is to identify "Vietnamized" words of Chinese origin to put them into that Sinitic-Vietnamese category. That said, the purpose of this worksheet is to point out a due process that fill deficiency of Western scholars who have still had misconception about what is Sino-Vietnamese.

Case Study Worksheet 6 Samples of Vietnamese vocabulary list worksheet compiled by Prof. Mark Alves

Vietnamese vocabulary

by Mark Alves

The vocabulary dataset contains 1,534 meaning-word pairs from Vietnamese, of which only a small, randomly selected portion is quoted here. Your task is to complete the blank "Source word" columns by identifying possible Chinese cognates, making use of the author’s http://han-viet.com as needed.

This material corresponds to the Vietnamese chapter in Loanwords in the World’s Languages,* where the Vietnamese section lists all recorded loanwords organized by donor language.

Each entry is presented in its standard orthography or transcription, using the conventional citation form. By clicking on a word, you can access additional details beyond what is displayed in the table.

Word	LWT Code	Meaning	Borrowed Status	Source Words
Loanword Typology	Loanword Typology ID	Loanword Typology meanings	clearly borrowed probably borrowed perhaps borrowed very little evidence no evidence	For possible Chinese cognates.
anh	2.444	the older brother	5. no evidence for borrowing
anh chị	2.4561	the older sibling	5. no evidence for borrowing
anh chị em	2.456	the sibling	5. no evidence for borrowing
anh chị em họ	2.55	the cousin	5. no evidence for borrowing
anh em	2.44	the brother	5. no evidence for borrowing
biển	1.32	the sea	5. no evidence for borrowing
bà (1)	2.47	the grandmother	1. clearly borrowed	婆, pó (Chinese )
bà (2)	2.471	the old woman	1. clearly borrowed	婆, pó (Chinese )
bà con	2.81	the relatives	5. no evidence for borrowing
bà goá chồng	2.76	the widow	5. no evidence for borrowing
bác	2.51	the uncle	2. probably borrowed	伯, bó (Chinese )
bác	2.512	the father's brother	2. probably borrowed	伯, bó (Chinese )
bão	1.58	the storm	2. probably borrowed	bào (暴) (Chinese )
bóng (1)	1.63	the shade or shadow	5. no evidence for borrowing
bóng tối	1.62	the darkness	5. no evidence for borrowing
bùn	1.214	the mud	5. no evidence for borrowing
bọt	1.324	the foam	5. no evidence for borrowing
bố	2.35	the father	3. perhaps borrowed	父, fǔ (Chinese )
bố chồng	2.611	the father-in-law (of a woman)	5. no evidence for borrowing
bố dượng	2.71	the stepfather	5. no evidence for borrowing
bố mẹ	2.37	the parents	5. no evidence for borrowing
bố mẹ vợ chồng	2.622	the parents-in-law	5. no evidence for borrowing
bố vợ	2.61	the father-in-law (of a man)	5. no evidence for borrowing
bờ	1.27	the shore	5. no evidence for borrowing
bụi	1.213	the dust	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu	2.5	the grandchild	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu	2.541	the sibling’s child	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu gái	2.49	the granddaughter	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu gái	2.54	the niece	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu trai	2.48	the grandson	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháu trai	2.53	the nephew	5. no evidence for borrowing
cháy	1.852	to burn(2)	5. no evidence for borrowing
chú	2.51	the uncle	2. probably borrowed	(EH) *ćǝuk (叔, shū) (Old Chinese )
chị	2.454	the older sister	2. probably borrowed	(EH) *cjǝ́j (姐, jiě) (Old Chinese )
chị dâu	2.6412	the sibling-in-law	5. no evidence for borrowing
chị em gái	2.45	the sister	5. no evidence for borrowing
chồng	2.31	the husband	2. probably borrowed	(EH) *ḍáŋ (丈 , zhàng) (Old Chinese )
chớp	1.55	the lightning	5. no evidence for borrowing
chớp	1.57	the bolt of lightning	5. no evidence for borrowing
con (1)	2.27	the child(1)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con (2)	2.43	the child(2)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con bé	2.28	the baby	5. no evidence for borrowing
con dâu	2.64	the daughter-in-law (of a man)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con dâu	2.6411	the child-in-law	5. no evidence for borrowing
con dấu	2.641	the daughter-in-law (of a woman)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con dấu	2.6411	the child-in-law	5. no evidence for borrowing
con gái (1)	2.26	the girl	5. no evidence for borrowing
con gái (2)	2.42	the daughter	5. no evidence for borrowing
con gái riêng	2.74	the stepdaughter	5. no evidence for borrowing
con rể	2.63	the son-in-law (of a man)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con rể	2.631	the son-in-law (of a woman)	5. no evidence for borrowing
con rể	2.6411	the child-in-law	5. no evidence for borrowing
con trai (1)	2.25	the boy	5. no evidence for borrowing
con trai (2)	2.41	the son	5. no evidence for borrowing
con trai riêng	2.73	the stepson	5. no evidence for borrowing
cát	1.215	the sand	5. no evidence for borrowing
cô	2.52	the aunt	1. clearly borrowed	姑, gū (Chinese )
cô	2.522	the father's sister	1. clearly borrowed	姑, gū (Chinese )
cô ta	2.932	she	5. no evidence for borrowing
cù lao	1.25	the island	2. probably borrowed	pulau (Cham )
cưới	2.33	to marry	3. perhaps borrowed	*NONE (娶, qǔ) (Old Chinese )
cầu vồng	1.59	the rainbow	3. perhaps borrowed	虹, hóng (Chinese )
cậu	2.511	the mother's brother	1. clearly borrowed	舅, jiù (Chinese )
củi	1.88	the firewood	5. no evidence for borrowing
cực quang	1.771	the arctic lights	1. clearly borrowed	極光, jí guāng (Chinese )
diêm	1.87	the match	5. no evidence for borrowing
dì	2.52	the aunt	2. probably borrowed	姨, yí (Chinese )
dòng nước xoáy	1.362	the whirlpool	5. no evidence for borrowing
em	2.4562	the younger sibling	5. no evidence for borrowing
em gái	2.455	the younger sister	5. no evidence for borrowing
em trai	2.44	the brother	5. no evidence for borrowing
em trai	2.445	the younger brother	5. no evidence for borrowing
gia đình	2.82	the family	1. clearly borrowed	家庭, jiā tíng (Chinese )
giếng	1.37	the spring or well	2. probably borrowed	(EH) *cjéŋ (井, jǐng) (Old Chinese )
gái	2.24	female(1)	5. no evidence for borrowing
gío	1.72	the wind	5. no evidence for borrowing
gả	2.33	to marry	2. probably borrowed	*kra:_h (嫁, jià) (Old Chinese )
gỗ	1.43	the wood	5. no evidence for borrowing
hang	1.28	the cave	5. no evidence for borrowing
hơi	1.71	the air	3. perhaps borrowed	(EH) *khǝś (氣, qì) (Old Chinese )
hơi nước	1.831	the steam	5. no evidence for borrowing
hậu duệ	2.57	the descendants	1. clearly borrowed	後裔, hòuyì (Chinese )
hắn	2.931	he	5. no evidence for borrowing
hồ	1.33	the lake	1. clearly borrowed	湖，hú (Chinese )
khói	1.83	the smoke	5. no evidence for borrowing
không khí	1.71	the air	1. clearly borrowed	空气, kōng qì (Chinese )
không nổi sóng	1.322	calm	5. no evidence for borrowing
ly dị	2.341	the divorce	2. probably borrowed	离异, lí yì (Chinese )
lưu vực	1.24	the valley	1. clearly borrowed	líu yù (流域) (Chinese )
lấy (1)	2.33	to marry	5. no evidence for borrowing
lửa	1.81	the fire	5. no evidence for borrowing
m	2.521	the mother's sister	2. probably borrowed	母, mǔ (Chinese )
mày (1)	2.92	you (singular)	5. no evidence for borrowing
mây	1.73	the cloud	5. no evidence for borrowing
mũi đất	1.343	the cape	5. no evidence for borrowing
mưa	1.75	the rain	5. no evidence for borrowing
mặt trăng	1.53	the moon	3. perhaps borrowed	bulang (Chamic )
mặt trời	1.52	the sun	5. no evidence for borrowing
mẹ	2.36	the mother	3. perhaps borrowed	*mɛ (Proto-Tai )
mẹ chồng	2.621	the mother-in-law (of a woman)	5. no evidence for borrowing
mẹ ghẻ	2.72	the stepmother	5. no evidence for borrowing
mẹ vợ	2.62	the mother-in-law (of a man)	5. no evidence for borrowing
mồ côi	2.75	the orphan	5. no evidence for borrowing
người	2.1	the person	5. no evidence for borrowing
người bạn trai	2.251	the young man	5. no evidence for borrowing
ngọn lửa	1.82	the flame	5. no evidence for borrowing
nó	2.93	he/she/it	5. no evidence for borrowing
núi	1.22	the mountain or hill	5. no evidence for borrowing
nước	1.31	the water	5. no evidence for borrowing
phá	1.341	the lagoon	5. no evidence for borrowing
quả phụ	2.76	the widow	1. clearly borrowed	寡妇, guǎ fù (Chinese)
rừng	1.41	the woods or forest	5. no evidence for borrowing
sao (1)	1.54	the star	5. no evidence for borrowing
sinh đôi	2.458	the twins	5. no evidence for borrowing
sóng	1.35	the wave	5. no evidence for borrowing
sông	1.36	the river or stream	5. no evidence for borrowing
sương	1.64	the dew	5. no evidence for borrowing
sương mù	1.74	the fog	5. no evidence for borrowing
sấm	1.56	the thunder	5. no evidence for borrowing
tao	2.91	I	5. no evidence for borrowing
than	1.89	the charcoal	2. probably borrowed	碳, tàn (Chinese )
than hồng	1.841	the embers	5. no evidence for borrowing
thiếu nữ	2.261	the young woman	1. clearly borrowed	少女, shàonǚ (Chinese )
thung lũng	1.24	the valley	5. no evidence for borrowing
thác nước	1.39	the waterfall	5. no evidence for borrowing
thím	2.522	the father's sister	1. clearly borrowed	婶, shěn (Chinese )
thảo nguyên	1.411	the savanna	1. clearly borrowed	草原 , cǎo yuán (Chinese )
thế giới	1.1	the world	1. clearly borrowed	shì jiè (世界) (Chinese )
thời tiết	1.78	the weather	5. no evidence for borrowing
trai	2.23	male(1)	5. no evidence for borrowing
triều	1.352	the tide	1. clearly borrowed	潮， cháo (Chinese )
triều cao	1.354	the high tide	2. probably borrowed	高潮， gāo cháo (Chinese )
triều thấp	1.353	the low tide	5. no evidence for borrowing
tro	1.84	the ash	5. no evidence for borrowing
trời	1.51	the sky	5. no evidence for borrowing
tuyết	1.76	the snow	1. clearly borrowed	xuě (雪) (Chinese )
tôi	2.91	I	5. no evidence for borrowing
tắt	1.861	to extinguish	5. no evidence for borrowing
tổ tiên	2.56	the ancestors	1. clearly borrowed	祖先, zǔ xiān (Chinese )
vách đá	1.222	the cliff or precipice	5. no evidence for borrowing
vịnh	1.34	the bay	5. no evidence for borrowing
vợ	2.32	the wife	2. probably borrowed	(EH) *bwǝ́ (妇, fù) (Old Chinese )
ánh sáng	1.61	the light	5. no evidence for borrowing
ông (1)	2.46	the grandfather	1. clearly borrowed	翁, wēng (Chinese )
ông (2)	2.461	the old man	1. clearly borrowed	翁, wēng (Chinese )
ông bà	2.4711	the grandparents	5. no evidence for borrowing
ông goá vợ	2.77	the widower	5. no evidence for borrowing
đàn bà	2.22	the woman	5. no evidence for borrowing
đàn bà có chồng	2.39	the married woman	5. no evidence for borrowing
đàn ông	2.21	the man	5. no evidence for borrowing
đàn ông có vợ	2.38	the married man	5. no evidence for borrowing
đá (1)	1.44	the stone or rock	5. no evidence for borrowing
đá (2)	1.77	the ice	5. no evidence for borrowing
đá ngầm	1.342	the reef	5. no evidence for borrowing
đám cưới	2.34	the wedding	5. no evidence for borrowing
đông lại	1.775	to freeze	2. probably borrowed	dōng (冬) (Chinese )
đại dương	1.329	the ocean	1. clearly borrowed	大洋, dà yáng (Chinese )
đại lục	1.26	the mainland	1. clearly borrowed	dà lù (大陆) (Chinese )
đảo	1.25	the island	1. clearly borrowed	dǎo (岛) (Chinese )
đất (1)	1.21	the land	5. no evidence for borrowing
đất (2)	1.212	the soil	5. no evidence for borrowing
đầm lầy	1.38	the swamp	5. no evidence for borrowing
địa động	1.45	the earthquake	1. clearly borrowed	地动, dì dòng (Chinese )
đốt	1.86	to light	5. no evidence for borrowing
đốt cháy	1.851	to burn(1)	5. no evidence for borrowing
đồi	1.22	the mountain or hill	4. very little evidence for borrowing	*?dl/rOOi (Proto-Tai )
đồng bằng	1.23	the plain	5. no evidence for borrowing
động	1.323	rough(2)	2. probably borrowed	动, dòng (Chinese )

*This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Germany License

II) Conclusion

The central findings of this research can be summarized in five points:

Yue substratum: Evidence of Yue elements predating the emergence of Chinese.
Critique of bias: Recognition of how nationalist and political agendas have distorted Vietnamese historical linguistics.
Reclassification of cognates: Demonstration that many Vietnamese cognates align more closely with Sino‑Tibetan and Chinese than with Mon‑Khmer.
Disyllabicity: Assertion that both Vietnamese and Chinese are fundamentally disyllabic, not monosyllabic.
Analogical method: Introduction of an approach based on recurrent syllabic pairings to identify additional Sinitic‑Vietnamese words.

Although Sinitic‑Vietnamese issues have been intermittently addressed under various guises since the last century, most specialists of Vietnamese etymology have continued to separate the Sinitic layer from the aboriginal Yue substratum. Instead, they have subsumed Vietnamese under Austroasiatic Mon‑Khmer, Austro‑Thai, Daic‑Kaida, Vietic, or Viet‑Muong groupings, all postulated as branches of a common Taic ancestry (De Lacouperie [1887] 1963). In doing so, they have downplayed the existence of a proto‑Yue stage, from which Sinitic elements later emerged across the territory that became the Middle Kingdom. The lexical evidence preserved in sources such as the Erya and Kangxi dictionaries—where doublets and root variants are commonplace – attests to this deeper Yue foundation.

At the same time, Vietnamese may also be regarded as a living descendant of the Yue language. Throughout this study, the author has emphasized that during the millennium of Chinese rule beginning in 111 B.C., the Annamese language, an ancient linguistic medium, gradually absorbed successive layers of late Sinitic elements that overlaid its Yue foundation. Together, these strata evolved into what we now recognize as modern Vietnamese. In fact, there is clear continuity of lineage, with affiliated variants developing from antiquity to the present.

When mapped geographically, the distribution of subdialects reveals a steady gradient of articulation, ranging from tense and heavy in the north to increasingly lax and softened in the south. This linguistic pattern mirrors the region’s history of ethnic admixture: northerners appear more Sinicized, central populations show stronger Chamic influence, and southerners reflect a blend of migrants from the north and center with local Khmer communities. The southern dialect, in particular, seems to have been shaped by early Teochew settlers whose speech intermingled with Khmer, producing the versatile Vietnamese spoken there today.

The study of Sinitic‑Vietnamese words of Chinese origin remains underexplored. Specialists have often limited their analyses to a narrow set of monosyllabic items, comparing them one‑to‑one with individual Chinese characters. This approach typically confines Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary to the phonological framework of Sino‑Vietnamese as aligned with Middle Chinese, and occasionally with Archaic or pre‑Sino‑Vietnamese (Tiền‑Hán‑Việt) strata. With the exception of some progress in Old Chinese reconstruction by leading Sinologists, Vietnamese linguistics has largely neglected broader comparative work—particularly with Sino‑Tibetan etymologies and with modern Chinese dialects and sub‑dialects that share basic vocabulary with Vietnamese. The evidence presented in the chapter on Sino‑Tibetan etymologies strongly supports this wider perspective, showing that these comparative sources have been crucial reservoirs for many active words in Vietnamese.

In the field of Sinitic‑Vietnamese etymology, progress has long been hindered by a deeply rooted misconception: the assumption that both Chinese and Vietnamese are inherently monosyllabic. In reality, meaningful work on polysyllabicity has been scarce. The Vietnamese concept of tiếng—a “complete sound” that can function as morpheme, syllable, or word—has often been misunderstood. Because modern Vietnamese orthography writes each syllable separately, many continue to mistake every syllable for a self‑contained word. This view, inherited from the historical reliance on Chinese character scripts until the early 20th century, has perpetuated the illusion of monosyllabism. As a result, research has disproportionately focused on monosyllabic Sino‑Vietnamese items, treating each syllable as an independent lexical unit, while overlooking the countless disyllabic compounds that more accurately reflect the structure of the language.

It is clear that this faulty approach has not only obstructed genuine breakthroughs in Vietnamese etymological studies but has also hindered broader cognitive development by ignoring the role of polysyllabicity. As seen in languages such as German, polysyllabic structures facilitate faster and more efficient processing of generalized information. This is why the present study has emphasized the principle of dissyllabicity in both Vietnamese and Chinese, proposing it as the foundation for a new etymological methodology. Such a framework enables the identification of a far greater number of Vietnamese words of Chinese origin within a coherent dissyllabic system.

The persistent misconception of Vietnamese as a “monosyllabic” language has severely limited progress in the field. Since Haudricourt’s theory of tonogenesis more than seven decades ago, there has been little fresh exposition of Vietnamese etyma of Chinese origin. Much scholarly focus has instead been diverted to Austroasiatic cognates, often unevenly distributed, many of which in fact align more closely with Sino‑Tibetan etymologies. This survey therefore suggests reconsidering the classification of Vietnamese within a broader Sino‑Tibetan framework.

Whether or not Vietnamese is ultimately placed within the Sino‑Tibetan family, the analogical approach advanced here, drawing on Chinese forms both literary and vernacular, ancient and modern, offers a productive path forward. By applying this method, the study seeks to renew momentum in Sinitic‑Vietnamese research and to open new avenues within the Sino‑Tibetan domain. The comparative cases cited, including those from Shafer’s lists, demonstrate the plausibility of this direction. While only plausible Sinitic‑Vietnamese etyma have been examined here, the clarification of irregularities already marks progress toward a more coherent understanding of the basic word stratum.

Ultimately, this research aims to equip both novices and specialists with new insights and practical tools for investigating Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary, with particular attention to dissyllabicity and Sino‑Tibetan cognateness. In time, such work will enable lexicologists to compile, for the first time in Vietnamese linguistic history, a comprehensive modern dictionary that systematically incorporates Chinese etymologies alongside other roots, including Mon‑Khmer.